Introduction to the Education for Democracy Index (EfDI)
The EfDI consists of national-level data on system characteristics and educational policies and practices that have been found in the literature to promote democratic competences and/or to diminish inequality in such competences. Higher scores on the main index or its subindexes mean that a country’s policies and practices do a relatively good job in promoting these outcomes—i.e., increasing both performance levels of and equality in democratic competences.
The EfDI and its subindexes are multidimensional. They comprise a set of indicators covering seven educational areas that are important for the formation of democratic competences.
Introduction to the Education for Democracy Index (EfDI)
The EfDI consists of national-level data on system characteristics and educational policies and practices that have been found in the literature to promote democratic competences and/or to diminish inequality in such competences. Higher scores on the main index or its subindexes mean that a country’s policies and practices do a relatively good job in promoting these outcomes—i.e., increasing both performance levels of and equality in democratic competences.
The EfDI and its subindexes are multidimensional. They comprise a set of indicators covering seven educational areas that are important for the formation of democratic competences.
Introduction to the Education for Democracy Index (EfDI)
The EfDI consists of national-level data on system characteristics and educational policies and practices that have been found in the literature to promote democratic competences and/or to diminish inequality in such competences. Higher scores on the main index or its subindexes mean that a country’s policies and practices do a relatively good job in promoting these outcomes—i.e., increasing both performance levels of and equality in democratic competences.
The EfDI and its subindexes are multidimensional. They comprise a set of indicators covering seven educational areas that are important for the formation of democratic competences.
Constructing the Index
To build the EfDI conceptually, we started by drawing on the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC) of the Council of Europe (CoE) to identify these competences (i.e., the values, attitudes, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that support democracy).
The EfDI captures different measures of competences. These include freedom of speech, respect for difference, respecting the rule of law, political participation, knowledge about the political system and the skills to navigate it, and a belief that all citizens are equal in status and need to be treated equally.
Next, we conducted an extensive review of the literature on all the areas of education influencing these competences. We found as many as 350 relevant studies and provide more details on the findings of these studies in the literature review. This review led us to identify seven areas of education having the following distinct effects on democratic competences.
Constructing the Index
To build the EfDI conceptually, we started by drawing on the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC) of the Council of Europe (CoE) to identify these competences (i.e., the values, attitudes, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that support democracy).
The EfDI captures different measures of competences. These include freedom of speech, respect for difference, respecting the rule of law, political participation, knowledge about the political system and the skills to navigate it, and a belief that all citizens are equal in status and need to be treated equally.
Next, we conducted an extensive review of the literature on all the areas of education influencing these competences. We found as many as 350 relevant studies and provide more details on the findings of these studies in the literature review. This review led us to identify seven areas of education having the following distinct effects on democratic competences.
Constructing the Index
To build the EfDI conceptually, we started by drawing on the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC) of the Council of Europe (CoE) to identify these competences (i.e., the values, attitudes, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that support democracy).
The EfDI captures different measures of competences. These include freedom of speech, respect for difference, respecting the rule of law, political participation, knowledge about the political system and the skills to navigate it, and a belief that all citizens are equal in status and need to be treated equally.
Next, we conducted an extensive review of the literature on all the areas of education influencing these competences. We found as many as 350 relevant studies and provide more details on the findings of these studies in the literature review. This review led us to identify seven areas of education having the following distinct effects on democratic competences.
The Seven Educational Areas
Educational Area
Effect on Democratic Competences
1
Citizenship education (CE) curriculum
The more clearly CE has been defined in the national curriculum, the more topics CE covers, and the more time is devoted to CE in the school curriculum, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
2
Participatory pedagogy
The more the teaching in schools allows students to practice democracy by allowing them to discuss social issues freely and by giving them a voice in their learning, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
3
CE in teacher training
The more comprehensively CE is addressed in teacher training, the better the performance in and in democratic competences.
4
School ethos
The more the school ethos addresses democratic values and practices, the better the performance in democratic competences.
5
Length of compulsory education
The longer the period of compulsory education, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
6
Unitary system of education
The more centralised a system of education is / the less autonomy schools have, the greater the equality in democratic competence.
7
Common Education
The more comprehensive lower secondary education is / the less tracked it is, the greater the equality in democratic competences.
The Seven Educational Areas
1
Citizenship education (CE) curriculum
The more clearly CE has been defined in the national curriculum, the more topics CE covers, and the more time is devoted to CE in the school curriculum, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
2
Participatory pedagogy
The more the teaching in schools allows students to practice democracy by allowing them to discuss social issues freely and by giving them a voice in their learning, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
3
CE in teacher training
The more comprehensively CE is addressed in teacher training, the better the performance in and in democratic competences.
4
School ethos
The more the school ethos addresses democratic values and practices, the better the performance in democratic competences.
5
Length of compulsory education
The longer the period of compulsory education, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
6
Unitary system of education
The more centralised a system of education is / the less autonomy schools have, the greater the equality in democratic competence.
7
Common Education
The more comprehensive lower secondary education is / the less tracked it is, the greater the equality in democratic competences.
The Seven Educational Areas
Educational Area
Effect on Democratic Competences
1
Citizenship education (CE) curriculum
The more clearly CE has been defined in the national curriculum, the more topics CE covers, and the more time is devoted to CE in the school curriculum, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
2
Participatory pedagogy
The more the teaching in schools allows students to practice democracy by allowing them to discuss social issues freely and by giving them a voice in their learning, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
3
CE in teacher training
The more comprehensively CE is addressed in teacher training, the better the performance in and in democratic competences.
4
School ethos
The more the school ethos addresses democratic values and practices, the better the performance in democratic competences.
5
Length of compulsory education
The longer the period of compulsory education, the better the performance in and the greater the equality in democratic competences.
6
Unitary system of education
The more centralised a system of education is / the less autonomy schools have, the greater the equality in democratic competence.
7
Common Education
The more comprehensive lower secondary education is / the less tracked it is, the greater the equality in democratic competences.
How These Areas Inform the Index
Consequently, we selected these seven areas as the building blocks of the EfDI and its subindexes. Guided by the effects of the areas reported in the literature, we assign higher scores to countries on a certain area if they show a policy or practice associated with higher performance levels of or greater equality in democratic competences.
For example, a country with 13 years of compulsory education will score higher in that area than one with only 10.
How These Areas Inform the Index
Consequently, we selected these seven areas as the building blocks of the EfDI and its subindexes. Guided by the effects of the areas reported in the literature, we assign higher scores to countries on a certain area if they show a policy or practice associated with higher performance levels of or greater equality in democratic competences.
For example, a country with 13 years of compulsory education will score higher in that area than one with only 10.
How These Areas Inform the Index
Consequently, we selected these seven areas as the building blocks of the EfDI and its subindexes. Guided by the effects of the areas reported in the literature, we assign higher scores to countries on a certain area if they show a policy or practice associated with higher performance levels of or greater equality in democratic competences.
For example, a country with 13 years of compulsory education will score higher in that area than one with only 10.
Understanding Performance vs. Equality
Three areas influence both performance levels and equality in democratic competences.
Two areas primarily influence the distribution (equality) of competences.
Two areas influence the performance level of competences.
While the first four areas shown in the Seven Educational Areas table above can be said to refer to policies and practices intentionally targeting democratic competences, the last three areas represent more general institutional characteristics that may not have been designed to foster such competences but that have side effects on them.
Understanding Performance vs. Equality
Three areas influence both performance levels and equality in democratic competences.
Two areas primarily influence the distribution (equality) of competences.
Two areas influence the performance level of competences.
While the first four areas shown in the Seven Educational Areas table above can be said to refer to policies and practices intentionally targeting democratic competences, the last three areas represent more general institutional characteristics that may not have been designed to foster such competences but that have side effects on them.
Understanding Performance vs. Equality
Three areas influence both performance levels and equality in democratic competences.
Two areas primarily influence the distribution (equality) of competences.
Two areas influence the performance level of competences.
While the first four areas shown in the Seven Educational Areas table above can be said to refer to policies and practices intentionally targeting democratic competences, the last three areas represent more general institutional characteristics that may not have been designed to foster such competences but that have side effects on them.
Subindexes and Index Structure
The overall EfDI index includes all seven areas.
The EfDI Performance subindex includes only the first five areas.
The EfDI Equality subindex includes all areas except School Ethos and CE in Teacher Training.
The EfDI Non-System subindex includes the four areas capturing intentional policies and practices.
We also created a subindex for each area. Except for Length of Compulsory Education, each area is broken down into a policy and practice component:
The EfDI Policy Subindex aggregates all policy components.
The EfDI Practice Subindex aggregates all practice components.
This structure provides the most detailed breakdown of democratic support within national education systems.
Subindexes and Index Structure
The overall EfDI index includes all seven areas.
The EfDI Performance subindex includes only the first five areas.
The EfDI Equality subindex includes all areas except School Ethos and CE in Teacher Training.
The EfDI Non-System subindex includes the four areas capturing intentional policies and practices.
We also created a subindex for each area. Except for Length of Compulsory Education, each area is broken down into a policy and practice component:
The EfDI Policy Subindex aggregates all policy components.
The EfDI Practice Subindex aggregates all practice components.
This structure provides the most detailed breakdown of democratic support within national education systems.
Subindexes and Index Structure
The overall EfDI index includes all seven areas.
The EfDI Performance subindex includes only the first five areas.
The EfDI Equality subindex includes all areas except School Ethos and CE in Teacher Training.
The EfDI Non-System subindex includes the four areas capturing intentional policies and practices.
We also created a subindex for each area. Except for Length of Compulsory Education, each area is broken down into a policy and practice component:
The EfDI Policy Subindex aggregates all policy components.
The EfDI Practice Subindex aggregates all practice components.
This structure provides the most detailed breakdown of democratic support within national education systems.
Notes on Excluded Areas
Educational attainment was not included in the EfDI due to negative correlations with other indicators, which would undermine index coherence.
CE assessment was excluded because the available studies mostly showed mixed or null effects.
Notes on Excluded Areas
Educational attainment was not included in the EfDI due to negative correlations with other indicators, which would undermine index coherence.
CE assessment was excluded because the available studies mostly showed mixed or null effects.
Notes on Excluded Areas
Educational attainment was not included in the EfDI due to negative correlations with other indicators, which would undermine index coherence.
CE assessment was excluded because the available studies mostly showed mixed or null effects.